
Spring 2025
In This Issue
The Decision Making of a Search Engine
by Alvin Sung
How Do Search Engines Decide What to Show Us?
When you search for something online using Google, Yahoo, or DuckDuckGo, you usually get a big list of websites. Have you ever wondered how these search engines decide which websites to show first? The internet has millions of websites, so there has to be a smart way to figure this out. That’s where special math and clever ideas come in!
A long time ago, in 1998, two important methods were created to help search engines rank websites: one is called PageRank, made by Google’s founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin, and the other is HITS, made by Jon Kleinberg, a computer scientist at Cornell University.
How Search Engines Used to Work
Before these methods, search engines just looked for the words you typed into the search bar. But this didn’t always work well. For example, if you searched for “car makers,” a website might not show up if it used words like “automobile manufacturers” instead of “car makers.” So, scientists thought of a better way to help search engines show more useful results.
PageRank: Following the Surfer
PageRank works by pretending there’s a person clicking on links from one website to another. This imaginary person is called a “surfer.” If a website has lots of links pointing to it, that website gets a higher score because more people might think it’s important.
Here’s how it works:
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Imagine every website as a dot in a big map.
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Draw arrows to show which websites link to each other.
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Websites with more links pointing to them get a higher score.
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A small twist: Sometimes the surfer "jumps" to a random website instead of following links. This makes sure no website is left out.
For example, if we have 3 websites:
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Website 1 links to Website 2.
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Website 2 does not link to any website.
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Website 3 links back to Website 2.
PageRank uses math to figure out how likely the surfer is to end up on each website. The website the surfer visits most often gets the highest rank! In this case, Website 2 would then appear first on your screen because both Website 1 and 3 link to it.
HITS: Finding Leaders and Helpers
HITS works a little differently. Instead of just giving one score to each website, it gives two scores:
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Authority Score: This shows how good the website’s information is.
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Hub Score: This shows how well the website links to other good websites.
For example:
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If a website is really useful and many other websites link to it, it gets a high authority score.
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If a website points to lots of useful websites, it gets a high hub score.
So, HITS doesn’t just look for popular websites; it also looks for websites that are helpful guides to other pages.
What’s the Difference?
Both PageRank and HITS use math and maps of the internet, but they work a little differently:
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PageRank is simpler and looks at all the websites on the internet.
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HITS focuses on smaller groups of websites related to what you searched for.
Why Is PageRank More Popular?
Today, Google still uses a version of PageRank because it’s fast and can rank millions of websites at once. HITS is slower because it looks at two scores for each website and works on smaller groups of websites.
Conclusion
Search engines are like super-smart treasure hunters. They use math and tricks to help you find the best answers to your questions. Next time you search for something online, remember how clever algorithms like PageRank and HITS work behind the scenes to make it happen!



Citations
An Introduction to Search Engines and How They Work | Webalive, www.webalive.com.au/an-introduction-to-search-engines/. Accessed 11 Jan. 2025.
Raluca Tanase, Remus Radu. “Lecture #3.” Page Rank Algorithm - The Mathematics of Google Search, Cornell, pi.math.cornell.edu/ mec/Win-ter2009/RalucaRemus/Lecture3/lecture3.html. Accessed 6 Dec. 2024.
Raluca Tanase, Remus Radu. “Lecture #4.” HITS Algorithm - Hubs and Authorities on the Internet, Cornell, pi.math.cornell.edu/ mec/Win-ter2009/RalucaRemus/Lecture4/lecture4.html. Accessed 6 Dec. 2024.
Rousseau, Christiane. How Google Works - Markov Chains and Eigenvalues, Norwegian University of Science and Technology - NTNU, 5 Aug.2010, wiki.math.ntnu.no/ media/tma4145/2015h/google pagerank.pdf.
“PageRank.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 19 Nov. 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PageRank.
YouTube. “YouTube.” YouTube, YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P8Kt6Abq_rM. Accessed 6 Dec. 2024.
Binary Numbers: Backbone of all Modern Technology
by Alvin Sung

Have you ever wondered how computers "think"? They don’t use our regular number system, called decimal (base 10). Instead, they use something simpler but just as powerful: binary numbers (base 2). Binary numbers are the foundation of all computer operations and the way digital technology processes and stores information. They play a critical role in everything from running programs to storing data and even enabling complex calculations.
Binary numbers use only two digits: 0 and 1. In contrast, the decimal system we use every day has ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. The binary system works by representing numbers using powers of 2, instead of powers of 10 like in decimal. Each digit in a binary number, called a bit, represents a specific power of 2. The rightmost bit represents 2⁰, the next represents 2¹, then 2², and so on, with the value doubling as you move left.
To understand binary numbers better, consider the binary number 1011. It can be broken down into its parts: 1×2³+0×2²+1×2¹+1×2⁰. This equals 8+0+2+1=11. So, 1011 in binary equals 11 in decimal. Each bit in the binary number contributes to the total value based on its position and whether it’s a 1 (on) or a 0 (off). This simple but effective system allows binary numbers to represent any value.

Computers use binary because it aligns perfectly with their electronic systems. Inside a computer, tiny switches called transistors can either be on or off, which corresponds directly to 1 (on) and 0 (off) in binary. These on/off states form the basis of all computer operations. By combining millions (or even billions) of these simple states, computers can perform complex calculations, run software, and store data. The binary system is efficient and reliable, making it the perfect foundation for digital technology.
Binary numbers aren’t just for computers—they’re a fundamental part of our digital world. Photos, videos, text messages, and even streaming music are stored as long strings of binary numbers. When you send a text or watch a video online, the data is converted into binary before being transmitted. Even QR codes and barcodes use binary-like patterns to store and share information quickly and effectively.
Converting decimal numbers to binary is a fun and easy exercise. To convert a number, divide it by 2 and write down the remainder (either 0 or 1). Then divide the quotient by 2 and repeat the process until the quotient is 0. For example, to convert 13 to binary: 13÷2=6 remainder 1
6÷2=3 remainder 0
3÷2=1 remainder 1
1÷2=0 remainder 1.
Reading the remainders from bottom to top gives 1101, which is 13 in binary. This method is simple and highlights the logical nature of binary.
While traditional computing relies on binary numbers to store and process information, quantum computing represents the next frontier. Instead of binary bits, quantum computers use qubits, which can represent 0, 1, or both simultaneously due to a property called superposition. This allows quantum computers to perform multiple calculations at once, making them incredibly powerful for solving certain problems, such as breaking encryption codes, simulating complex molecules, or optimizing large systems. Quantum computing pushes beyond the limitations of binary systems and opens up a world of possibilities.
Binary numbers may seem simple, but they are incredibly powerful. They form the backbone of all modern technology, enabling everything from smartphones to video games and even space exploration. By understanding binary, you’ve taken your first step into the digital world. Who knows? One day, you might use binary or even quantum computing to create groundbreaking innovations that shape the future!
Citations
Binary number system. There are Many Ways to Write Numbers. (n.d.) https://u.osu.edu/storageofdata/sample-page/
O., Z. B. (2020, June 26). Learn binary code. Medium. https://ovayozabalogun.medium.com/learn-binary-code-cccbf5cfc773
Counting in binary is straightforward once you grasp the concept. In decimal, we count from 0 to 9 before carrying over to the next position. In binary, we count from 0 to 1 before carrying over. For example, the sequence goes 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, and 111. Each new position represents a larger power of 2, just like each position in decimal represents a larger power of 10. This simplicity makes binary ideal for computers, which rely on a straightforward on/off system.
Vertical Farms: A Cool Way to Grow Food in the City!
By Hosannah Choi
Imagine growing fresh vegetables and fruits right in the middle of a busy city—no huge farms or fields needed! This is what vertical farming is all about. It’s a super cool way to grow plants indoors, inside tall buildings or even abandoned factories. Instead of spreading out like traditional farms, vertical farms grow plants upward, in stacked layers, like shelves filled with plants!
So, how does it work? Vertical farms use special systems to grow crops without soil, like hydroponics, where plants grow in water with nutrients. It’s like giving plants a drink with all the nutrients they need to grow strong and healthy. Some vertical farms also use aeroponics, where the plants’ roots are misted with nutrients instead of soaking in water. This method saves tons of water—up to 90% less than regular farming!
One awesome example of a vertical farm is AeroFarms in New Jersey. They grow over 2 million pounds of leafy greens every year, like lettuce and spinach, inside just one warehouse. That’s a lot of healthy veggies for the city! And the best part? These crops grow faster and need fewer resources compared to regular farms. Plus, because the farm is in the city, there’s no need to ship the food from faraway places, which helps cut down on pollution.
Vertical farming is also great for the planet. It uses less water, takes up less space, and doesn’t need harmful pesticides. Even better, it can be powered by solar panels or wind energy, making it even more eco-friendly!
As cities get bigger, vertical farming is an exciting way to make sure everyone has fresh food nearby. This means less pollution from trucks and more healthy meals in the community. It’s also a great way to help places that don’t have easy access to fresh food, known as food deserts.
Vertical farms are still growing in popularity, but they could be a huge part of how we feed the world in the future. Who knows? Maybe one day you’ll get to visit a vertical farm in your own city!
So, whether you’re dreaming of being an environmental hero or just love the idea of growing your own veggies in the city, vertical farming is a great way to help make the world a greener place. 🌱





Wildfires in California: What’s Happening and How We Can Help
By Hosannah Choi
California is known for its sunny beaches, beautiful mountains, and big cities like Los Angeles. But right now, some areas, including the Palisades and other parts of the state, are experiencing dangerous wildfires. These fires are burning through forests, neighborhoods, and parks, leaving smoke in the air and making people and animals leave their homes.
What Are Wildfires?
Wildfires are big fires that burn through nature, like forests, grasslands, and hills. They can start from things like lightning strikes, campfires left unattended, or even sparks from machines. In dry places like California, where there hasn’t been a lot of rain, trees and grass can catch fire easily.
What’s Happening in the Palisades?
The Palisades, a beautiful area near the ocean in Los Angeles, is one of the places where wildfires have started. These fires spread quickly because of strong winds and dry weather. Firefighters are working very hard to stop the flames and protect people’s homes. They use special trucks, airplanes, and helicopters to drop water and foam on the fires.
Why Do Wildfires Happen More Often?
California has always had wildfires, but they are becoming more common and stronger because of climate change. Climate change makes the Earth hotter, which dries out plants and trees, making them easier to burn. People are working on ways to stop climate change, like using clean energy and protecting forests.
What Can We Do to Help?
Even if you’re far away from California, there are ways you can help:
• Learn about wildfires: Understanding how they happen can help us prevent them.
• Donate to help people and animals: Many groups provide food, water, and shelter to families and pets affected by wildfires.
• Plant trees and protect the Earth: Trees and plants help keep our planet healthy and reduce the effects of climate change.
Hope for the Future
While wildfires are scary, people are coming together to fight them. Firefighters, volunteers, and scientists are working hard to keep communities safe. Kids like you can also make a difference by learning about nature and helping to take care of the planet.
Let’s work together to protect our beautiful world for animals, people, and future generations!



How Deforestation Spread Illness
by Ashley Sung
Do you know the world has lost a third of its forest due to deforestation? That is twice the size of the United States. The leading cause of deforestation is agribusiness where “huge areas of forest are burned or cleared to make space for crops and livestock” (Greenpeace). While it creates sustainable food production and reduces food costs, modern farming practices overuse natural resources. Farmers cut down trees and burn down forests for land use. A conservation ecologist, Christy Slay claims that these areas will likely never be forests again.

In addition to the loss of forests, we could put ourselves at greater risk of spreading disease through deforestation. When we intrude into forests, we increase the interaction between animals. This could lead to an increased risk of zoonotic disease or animal-to-human disease. For example, COVID-19, the infectious disease that started back in 2020, most likely originated from bats and spread through others by living in travelers’ bodies. This kind of disease is typically isolated in an enclosed habitat like a closed forest which is not a threat to humans. However, the problem arises when their habitat is destroyed which easily triggers an outbreak.

While deforestation is the number one environmental issue, it’s not an unsolvable problem. There are solutions even you can help to save the earth! For example, plant trees, buy and use responsibly, go paperless, recycle, and more!
Citations
“Agribusiness & Deforestation.” Greenpeace USA, www.greenpeace.org/usa/forests/issues/agribusiness/#:~:text=Agribusiness%E2%80%94in%20which%20huge%20areas.
“How Can We Stop Deforestation?” The World Counts, 2014, www.theworldcounts.com/stories/How-Can-We-Stop-Deforestation.
“How Forest Loss Leads to Spread of Disease | Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability.” Sustainability.stanford.edu, 2020, sustainability.stanford.edu/news/how-forest-loss-leads-spread-disease#:~:text=When%20people%20venture%20into%20forested.
NASA. “Sizing up How Agriculture Connects to Deforestation.” Earthobservatory.nasa.gov, 11 Aug. 2021, earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148674/sizing-up-how-agriculture-connects-to-deforestation.
Ritchie, Hannah. “The World Has Lost One-Third of Its Forest, but an End of Deforestation Is Possible.” Our World in Data, 9 Feb. 2021, ourworldindata.org/world-lost-one-third-forests#:~:text=10%2C000%20years%20ago%2057%25%20of.
Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. “How Deforestation Can Lead to More Infectious Diseases | DW | 29.04.2020.” DW.COM, www.dw.com/en/how-deforestation-can-lead-to-more-infectious-diseases/a-53282244.
“What Are the Disadvantages of Using Modern Farming Methods? Biology Q&A.” Byjus.com, byjus.com/question-answer/what-are-the-disadvantages-of-using-modern-farming-methods/.
Climate Change and Food Safety
by Ashley Sung
Climate change leads to devastating natural disasters, but do you know it also makes our food supply more vulnerable to contamination? Long-term shifts in temperature, humidity, and general weather patterns threaten our food security and bring economic loss to the farmers. The elevated temperature brings new pests into agricultural areas and could speed up the plant lifecycle. In other words, the plants would mature too quickly which has less time for photosynthesis (a process where plants turn light energy into chemical energy ). This effect could produce fewer grains and smaller yields. But how does climate change directly affect our health?
Increased temperature and humidity affect the ability of many bacterial foodborne pathogens to survive. For example, Salmonella spp., a bacterium that can cause acute diarrheal disease, can thrive in warmer temperatures. Moreover, with warmer summers and milder winters, the number of insects and rodents increases which can contribute to the spread of foodborne pathogens. Not only do these factors threaten the food supply on land, but they also impact the ocean. Warmer seawater and more nutrients in the water cause the growth of toxic algae, leading to seafood contamination. If we consumed contaminated seafood, we could experience symptoms like fatigue, insomnia (difficulty falling asleep), general malaise (general discomfort/lack of well-being), and more.
Everyone can help limit climate change. There are a couple of ways even you can do it! Reduce energy use, clean up the environment, throw away less food, plant more trees, and more!


Citations
Cho, Renee. “How Climate Change Will Affect Plants.” State of the Planet, 27 Jan. 2022, news.climate.columbia.edu/2022/01/27/how-climate-change-will-affect-plants/#:~:text=In%20addition%2C%20an%20increase%20in.
“Climate Change and Food Safety.” European Food Safety Authority, www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/climate-change-and-food-safety.
“Climate Change and Food Safety Impacts.” Openknowledge.fao.org, openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0aa558d4-57c7-498d-87f7-b9e37577882f/content/src/html/climate-change-and-food-safety-impacts.html.
“Climate Change: Possible Implications for Food Safety?” Www.eufic.org, www.eufic.org/en/food-production/article/climate-change-possible-implications-for-food-safety.
United Nations. “Actions for a Healthy Planet.” United Nations, 2020, www.un.org/en/actnow/ten-actions.
Newton's Law of Motion
by Alvin Sung
Isaac Newton formulated the three basic laws of physics in 1687. These laws describe the motions of objects and how they relate to mass and acceleration.
The first law is called the law of inertia, which states that an object’s motion stays the same unless it is affected by forces. This basically means that a stationary object will stay at rest unless an external force acts on it. This also means that a moving object will continue to move at a constant speed unless an external force is applied on the object. If a car is moving at 50 mph, it slows down gradually because of the friction between the car’s tires and the road, which is a type of force. The car can accelerate using the force from the engine as well.
The second law is a math equation F=MA, which means Force = Mass x Acceleration. The force from an object is found by multiplying its mass by its acceleration. If we want to find the force of a 1000 kg car increasing at a rate of 5 m/s per second. The car’s force is 1000 x 5, which is 5000. The unit of force is called newton (as you can tell why), or short for N. We can also find the force from your body, just multiply your mass (in kilograms) by 9.81 meter per second squared (this is the unit for acceleration) because 9.81 is Earth’s gravity.
Newton’s last law is the law of action and reaction, which states that for every force during an interaction, there is an equal and opposite force. For example, if a 1000 kg car is increasing its speed at a rate of 5 m/s per second, and it accidentally hits a palm tree. Both the car and the tree would experience the same amount of force, which is 1000 x 5 = 5000 N.
These laws are the fundamentals of physics, and they have helped us solve numerous physics problems in different fields like designing safety features in cars so passengers feel the least amount of force in an accident or determining how much force a building can support without collapsing.

Citations
“Newton’s Laws of Motion for Kids — 3 Laws in Simple Terms That Any Kid Will Get.” Edcraft.io, edcraft.io/blog/all-articles/3-newtons-laws-with-real-life-examples-for-kids.
Quantum Computing
by Alvin Sung
Quantum computing is an advanced calculation method using the principle of quantum mechanics, a branch of physics that studies the behavior of nature at a subatomic scale. They can perform calculations much faster than traditional computers because quantum computers use qubits to store and process information. In classical computers, a bit is the smallest unit of data they can store, either 0 or 1. However, qubits can be both 0 and 1 simultaneously, which allows quantum computers to consider more possibilities and process information faster. This quantum phenomenon is called superposition.
Another characteristic of quantum computing is entanglement, where two qubits become dependent on each other, no matter how far apart they are. This differs from a classical computer, where each bit is independent and cannot connect with other bits. The linked qubits can work together and allow quantum computers to calculate more efficiently. Although quantum computers can help us solve problems much faster, they still have some disadvantages. For example, they make mistakes easily, and they require a large amount of energy to operate, which could damage the environment.
So what are some of the possible applications of these insanely fast computers?
1. Medicine
Quantum computers can model the behavior of proteins and interactions between molecules to help researchers develop new medicine more effectively. The algorithm can also predict patients’ reactions to drugs more accurately and optimize their safety.
2. Online Privacy
Quantum computing can protect online users’ privacy by making the firewall more complicated and improving cybersecurity.
3. Climate Modeling
Quantum computers can analyze a large amount of climate data to accurately predict climate change impacts and provide effective solutions. They can also optimize the use of energy to prevent waste.
Science-Based Study Methods
by Alvin Sung
Have you ever wondered why some of your classmates can understand the materials faster than you in less time? It is not because they are smarter than you, but because they know more effective study methods. Although there are prodigies like Albert Einstein, those are rare circumstances, and you can use many learning methods to improve your grades. This article will explore the top 3 study tips to help you learn and comprehend materials faster!
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Scan Through the Chapter Before the Lesson
Reading the content before your teacher teaches it can help your brain get used to the materials, and therefore help you learn faster during lectures. To prove this to you, let’s take a look at this passage:
The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step; otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first, the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but, then, one can never tell. After the procedure is completed, one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more, and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is a part of life. (pp. 134–135)
*Reference from “Teach Yourself How to Learn” by Mcguire
You might feel confused about this passage, and that’s normal to most people. But what if I tell you that this passage is about laundry? I want you to reread the passage and see if anything changes.
The whole passage makes a lot more sense right? This is why previewing class materials can help you learn faster. Your brain will have time to adapt to the new materials and enhance your learning efficiency!
2. Understand the Material Well Enough to be able to Teach Someone about it
When you are studying for a test, you can pretend you have to give a lecture about the topic to a group of students. This way, you will anticipate questions your imaginary students might have, which could help you realize if there’s anything you don't understand completely. After you are done studying, you can explain what you learned to your friends or just a doll.
3. Use Bloom’s Taxonomy
This pyramid shows the different levels of understanding a topic. In order to be successful in a class, you first need to identify which level of understanding is required in your class. For example, if you have a single-digit multiplication exam, you only need to remember the 9x9 multiplication chart. However, if the tests include word problem, you need to be able to apply the multiplication concepts to the real-world, and therefore requires greater understanding of the topic.

Neuralink
by Alvin Sung
On January 29, 2024, Elon Musk’s company, Neuranlink, implanted a brain chip into Noland Arbaugh, who was paralyzed below the shoulder after a diving incident. After a few months, Neuralink announced that the surgery was a success, and the patient can now play chess on a computer using his mind! Here’s the link to the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=5SrpYZum4Nk
So how does this whole thing work?
Let’s begin by talking a bit about the vision of Neuralink. Elon Musk started this company to revolutionize the relationship between computers and humans. The device has the potential to accomplish things like enhancing cognitive abilities, allowing humans to communicate more efficiently, or even helping those with paralysis to move their prosthetic limbs with thoughts. This device can impact society significantly.
Here is the picture of the brain chip implanted into Noland. It contains 64 flexible polymer threads, providing 1,024 electrodes to analyze brain activities. These threads are about the size of human hair and are incredibly flexible so they can move with the brain. The electrodes analyze the neurons that flow through the brain and record one’s thoughts. The information is then sent to a computer.
This surgery begins with a surgeon drilling a hole into the patient’s skill. After this, the rest of the procedure is done by this robot because of how precise the surgery needs to be. It has to ensure the threads are inserted at the correct spot. There are endless possibilities with this innovative device. However, Noland did mention there were a few issues he faced during the trials. Therefore, there are steps we need to take to ensure the safety and protection of the patients.

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Citations:
Works Citeddesignboom, juliana neira I. “Elon Musk’s Neuralink Unveils Brain Implant Update and the Surgical Robot to Insert It.” Designboom | Architecture & Design Magazine, 31 Aug. 2020, www.designboom.com/technology/elon-musk-neuralink-surgical-robot-woke-studios-08-31-2020/. Accessed 11 May 2024.First Human Neuralink Recipient Experiences Mechanical Issues - Lowyat.NET. 9 May 2024, www.lowyat.net/2024/322032/neuralink-recipient-mechanical-issues/. Accessed 11 May 2024.
Quantum Computing
by Alvin Sung
Quantum computing is an advanced calculation method using the principle of quantum mechanics, a branch of physics that studies the behavior of nature at a subatomic scale. They can perform calculations much faster than traditional computers because quantum computers use qubits to store and process information. In classical computers, a bit is the smallest unit of data they can store, either 0 or 1. However, qubits can be both 0 and 1 simultaneously, which allows quantum computers to consider more possibilities and process information faster. This quantum phenomenon is called superposition.
Another characteristic of quantum computing is entanglement, where two qubits become dependent on each other, no matter how far apart they are. This differs from a classical computer, where each bit is independent and cannot connect with other bits. The linked qubits can work together and allow quantum computers to calculate more efficiently. Although quantum computers can help us solve problems much faster, they still have some disadvantages. For example, they make mistakes easily, and they require a large amount of energy to operate, which could damage the environment.
So what are some of the possible applications of these insanely fast computers?
1. Medicine
Quantum computers can model the behavior of proteins and interactions between molecules to help researchers develop new medicine more effectively. The algorithm can also predict patients’ reactions to drugs more accurately and optimize their safety.
2. Online Privacy
Quantum computing can protect online users’ privacy by making the firewall more complicated and improving cybersecurity.
3. Climate
ModelingQuantum computers can analyze a large amount of climate data to accurately predict climate change impacts and provide effective solutions. They can also optimize the use of energy to prevent waste.
